Chapter 3: The Kingdom of Zog I (1920-1939)

By Elton Varfi

The Vlora War (1920)

 

The year 1920 marked a pivotal moment in Albania's history, as the nascent state, determined to cement its independence, waged a relentless struggle to assert itself as a sovereign nation. The international landscape in which Albania found itself was exceedingly complex, marked by geopolitical tensions and rivalries among the major European powers, who viewed the emergence of new states in a strategically vital region with great suspicion. In this context, the city of Vlora, situated on the southern coast of the country, became the scene of one of the most significant and symbolic episodes in the Albanian struggle for independence: the Vlora War.

View of Vlorë. On the right, the minarets of the mosques in the Muslim quarter can be seen.

During World War I, Italy, driven by ambitions to expand its influence in the Balkans, occupied Vlora as part of its broader military operations in the region. The Italian occupation was motivated by a combination of strategic factors, including control over key maritime routes in the Adriatic Sea and the desire to project power in the face of other Balkan nations. However, following the end of the global conflict in 1918, the continued presence of Italian military forces in Albania began to be perceived with increasing suspicion and hostility by the local population, who saw this occupation as a clear threat to the fragile independence that the country had only recently secured.

The situation became even more volatile in the post-war period, a time characterized by political instability and rising nationalist tensions across Europe. Albanians, who were just beginning the arduous task of reconstructing their state from the devastation of the global conflict, viewed the continued presence of Italian troops in Vlora as a de facto attempt at annexation, one that threatened to undermine their aspirations for self-determination. The failure of European powers to honor their wartime promises and the increasing international pressure only served to heighten the widespread sense of frustration and anger among the Albanian population.

This growing discontent culminated in the Vlora War, a conflict where Italian forces, despite their superior equipment and military organization, were met with a surprisingly resolute and tenacious Albanian resistance. The Albanian militias, although largely composed of peasants and local residents, were able to mobilize swiftly, uniting under the banner of nationalism to form a common front against the foreign occupier. This movement, which at first glance appeared disorganized and poorly armed, was nonetheless driven by a deep ideological conviction: the defense of the homeland and the preservation of national identity. These elements infused the Albanian resistance with an extraordinary sense of cohesion and determination.

The Vlora War was not merely a series of military skirmishes, but also an ideological and cultural battle, where Albanians saw the conflict as a crucial opportunity to reaffirm their national identity and to reject any form of foreign interference in their internal affairs. This resistance extended well beyond the battlefield, engaging the civilian population, who played a crucial role in supporting the war effort. Civilians provided logistical support to the militias and organized protests against the Italian occupation, demonstrating their commitment to the cause of independence. In this context, Vlora became a powerful symbol of Albania’s fight for freedom and sovereignty, a place where the determination of a people triumphed over a numerically and technically superior enemy.

The conflict ended in a surprising victory for the Albanians. Despite the challenges faced and the significant losses incurred, the Albanian resistance managed to force the Italian troops to withdraw from Vlora, marking a triumph not only on the battlefield but also, and perhaps more importantly, on the moral and political front. This success, achieved against all odds, greatly strengthened the sense of national unity, solidifying Albania's position as a sovereign state at a time when its very existence was still uncertain.

"La Domenica del Corriere" No. 26, June 27 - July 4, 1920, celebrates the bayonet charge by the Alpini, decisive in stopping the rebels' breakthrough in the village of Babiza.

The repercussions of the victory at Vlora were felt internationally as well. Albania, which until then had been regarded as a weak and vulnerable nation, demonstrated its ability to defend its independence and effectively oppose the expansionist ambitions of foreign powers. This episode had a galvanizing effect on the Albanian nationalist movement, which found renewed energy and greater support among the population. The victory also bolstered the Albanians' confidence in their own abilities, further fueling the sense of national pride that would be crucial in the face of future challenges the young nation would encounter.

The Vlora War of 1920 stands out as one of the most significant moments in modern Albanian history during the 20th century, not only for its military outcome but also for the profound impact it had on the spirit and identity of the Albanian people. Although relatively brief, this conflict left an indelible mark on the collective memory of the country, becoming a symbol of the struggle for freedom and the resilience of a people determined to protect their sovereignty.

The Democratic Revolution of 1924

Following the victory in the Vlora War, an event that temporarily strengthened Albania's position on the international stage, the country remained mired in extreme internal political instability. Despite the military success, the deep political and social divisions within the country were left unresolved, contributing to a climate of ongoing uncertainty. Various political factions, often driven more by personal ambitions than by a shared vision for the country's future, vied for power. This intense competition, combined with the economic hardships plaguing much of the population, culminated in an explosive situation that led to the Democratic Revolution of 1924.

The revolution was not a sudden event, but rather the result of years of growing discontent. This discontent was fueled by a number of factors, including the perception that the central government was corrupt and ineffective, incapable of addressing the country’s economic and social challenges. The government was criticized for failing to implement the necessary reforms to modernize Albania, a country that, despite its independence, remained underdeveloped compared to other European nations. The promises of progress and development made by the political elites had largely gone unfulfilled, further increasing the frustration among the population.

In this context of disillusionment, a central figure emerged in the revolutionary movement: Fan Noli, a charismatic leader who managed to embody the hopes for change of a large part of the population. Noli was not just a politician; he was also an Orthodox bishop, whose spiritual authority earned him great respect within Albanian society.

Theofan Stilian Noli (1882 – 1965)

But what made him particularly influential was his political and cultural engagement, which allowed him to build a broad and diverse following. Noli had a clear vision for Albania's future: he wanted to transform the country into a democratic and progressive nation, free from the influence of the great powers that had long dominated the Balkans.

With the support of various nationalist and democratic groups, as well as the Kosovo Committee, Noli succeeded in mobilizing widespread popular support. This backing didn’t come only from intellectual elites or political circles but also from the masses, weary of daily hardships and eager for tangible change.

Armed with this base of support, Noli took control of the government at a time when public discontent had reached its peak. His objective was clear: to radically transform Albania through an ambitious reform program that directly addressed the root causes of the country’s instability.

One of Noli’s primary proposals was agrarian reform, a particularly sensitive issue in a predominantly rural country where land was the main source of livelihood for the population. The reform aimed to redistribute land to peasants, many of whom lived in extreme poverty and were dependent on large landowners. This proposal was seen as a direct threat by the privileged classes, who owned vast tracts of land and held considerable economic and political power. Additionally, Noli sought to implement administrative reform to create a more efficient and less corrupt state apparatus, capable of managing the country’s resources more effectively and better responding to the needs of the population.

However, the implementation of these reforms proved to be extremely difficult. Resistance came not only from the privileged classes, who saw their interests threatened, but also from foreign powers that feared the consequences of an overly independent Albania. Particularly, Italy and Yugoslavia, which had strategic interests in the region, watched developments in Albania with concern, fearing that radical change might destabilize the entire regional balance.

As Noli endeavored to carry out his program, Ahmet Zogu, a former prime minister who had been forced to flee to Yugoslavia after Noli’s rise to power, did not remain inactive. Zogu, who had already demonstrated considerable political and military skills, began organizing a counterattack. With the support of various external forces, including oil companies that viewed Albania as a land rich in resources, Zogu was able to assemble an army and prepare for a return to power.

Zogu’s counteroffensive was swift and decisive. By the end of 1924, he had regained control of the country, forcing Fan Noli and his supporters to seek refuge abroad. This victory not only marked the fall of Noli’s government but also the end of the Democratic Revolution, leaving Zogu free to further consolidate his authority. Albania was thus entering a new phase in its history, characterized by Zogu’s return to power and his growing influence on the national political scene.

Ahmet Zogu and the Birth of the Albanian Monarchy

With his return to power, Ahmet Zogu faced a daunting and complex task: stabilizing a country deeply divided and torn by political and social tensions. Albania, emerging from a period of turmoil and instability, needed strong and determined leadership capable of restoring order and laying the foundations for a legitimate government, recognized by both the international community and the Albanian people. Zogu, fully aware of the challenges ahead, embarked on a path that would lead him to shape the destiny of the Albanian nation according to his political and ideological vision.

After regaining control of the country through a series of well-orchestrated political and military moves, Zogu focused on the need to consolidate his power. The suppression of opposition forces, which threatened to further destabilize the fragile balance of the country, was a crucial step in this direction. However, Zogu was well aware that repression alone would not be sufficient to ensure long-term stability. A more enduring and structural solution was needed, a vision that extended beyond the mere suppression of immediate threats.

Aḥmed Zogu. King Zog I (1895 - 1961)

With this in mind, Zogu began working on an ambitious and bold project: the transformation of Albania into a monarchy. This project reflected his deep conviction that only a strong and centralized monarchy could provide the level of stability necessary to guide the country toward modernity. In a context where Albania was still largely a rural country, with weak state institutions and a fragmented society, Zogu saw the monarchy as an institution capable of unifying the nation under a single authority. This idea was not new in the European context, where many nations had found in the monarchy a symbol of unity and continuity, capable of embodying national identity in an era of rapid and often tumultuous change.

In 1928, after years of preparation and political maneuvering, Zogu finally realized his project, proclaiming himself King of the Albanians with the title of Zog I. This event marked a crucial moment in Albania’s history, as it represented not only a change of regime but also an attempt to redefine the country’s identity and its place in the world. The proclamation of the monarchy was not merely a symbolic act; it was accompanied by a series of institutional reforms aimed at strengthening the king’s power and centralizing the state’s administration. These reforms were an integral part of Zog I’s vision, who presented himself as the defender of national unity and the promoter of modernization.

    The Royal Guard with red and black uniforms. 1931. Photo by Luigi Pellerano.

The centralization of power and the creation of a more efficient state administration were considered essential elements for building a modern state capable of facing the challenges of the 20th century. Zog I, inspired by European models, particularly those of France and Italy, introduced new laws and codes that reflected his aspiration to bring Albania up to the level of other European nations. These models were chosen not only for their administrative effectiveness but also because they embodied the ideal of a strong and centralized state, capable of ensuring order and promoting economic and social development.

The birth of the Albanian monarchy under Zog I thus represented a significant turning point in the country’s history. For the first time, Albania had a sovereign who openly identified with the Albanian people and was committed to leading the country toward a future of progress and development. The figure of Zog I became a symbol of a new beginning, an attempt to overcome the divisions of the past and build a united and modern nation.

However, the creation of the monarchy was not without difficulties and obstacles. Zog I had to face numerous challenges, both internal and external, that threatened the stability of his reign. On the internal front, the opposition, although formally silenced, continued to pose a constant threat. Despite the repressive measures adopted, social and political tensions were not entirely quelled, and various groups within the country continued to harbor feelings of dissatisfaction and resistance. Additionally, the reforms introduced by Zog I, while necessary, often encountered resistance and difficulties in their implementation, especially in a context where Albanian society was still deeply rooted in local traditions and structures.

On the international front, Albania found itself grappling with the ambitions of major powers, particularly Italy, which viewed the Balkan country as a strategic opportunity to extend its influence in the region. Italy, with its long history of interventions and interests in Albania, continued to exert significant pressure on the government of Zog I. This situation made the position of the new king particularly delicate, forcing him to carefully navigate the preservation of his kingdom’s independence while not alienating the external powers essential for the country’s economic and political stability.

In this complex and challenging context, Zog I sought to consolidate his power through a combination of authoritarianism and reform. On one hand, the king adopted repressive measures to maintain internal control; on the other, he aimed to modernize the country by promoting reforms that could stimulate economic development and improve the living conditions of the population. This dual approach reflected the difficult reality of governing a country striving to find its place in the modern world while still grappling with internal divisions and external pressures.

The creation of the Albanian monarchy under Zog I thus represented a decisive turning point in the definition of national identity and the path toward modernization. Although Zog I’s monarchical project was ambitious and marked a significant attempt to stabilize and unify Albania, it was not without contradictions and difficulties. The challenges the new king faced, both internally and internationally, illustrate the complexities of governing a country balancing between tradition and modernity in a constantly changing regional and global context.

The Political and Economic Context During the Reign of Zog I

The reign of Zog I unfolded during a period of extreme political and economic complexity, in which the monarch faced a series of challenges that required not only political acumen but also a strategic vision capable of reconciling tradition with modernity. His ambition to transform Albania into a modern and functional state clashed with a reality marked by deep historical and cultural roots, making any attempt at change an arduous and often controversial endeavor.

On one side, Zog I was committed to modernizing the country through a series of reforms aimed at creating a more efficient state apparatus and promoting economic development. These reforms were essential to his vision of an Albania that could keep pace with the rest of Europe, leaving behind a past characterized by backwardness and fragmentation. Legal and administrative reforms were at the core of this modernization effort. Drawing inspiration from French and Italian codes, Zog introduced new civil, criminal, and commercial codes, attempting to import the best European practices into Albania. The reform of the education system was another cornerstone, with the goal of reducing illiteracy rates and training a new generation of citizens capable of contributing to the country’s progress.

1)    To combat illiteracy, the Albanian kingdom opened almost 600 schools, including evening classes where both children and adults were educated. 1931. Photo by Luigi Pellerano.

Nevertheless, the implementation of these reforms proved to be extremely difficult, as Albanian society was still deeply tied to traditional structures that were poorly suited to the changes imposed from above. Most of the population lived in extreme poverty, within a rural context where illiteracy was rampant and modern infrastructure was practically nonexistent. These social and economic conditions made modernization a slow and arduous process. For instance, the reform of the education system faced enormous difficulties, not only due to the lack of schools and qualified teachers but also because of cultural resistance to an education that many saw as alien to local traditions. The gap between Zog’s aspirations and the daily reality of his subjects was, therefore, significant.

    Albanian primary school students. 1931. Photo by Luigi Pellerano.

These difficulties were compounded by the resistance of traditional elites, who perceived Zog’s reforms as a direct threat to their longstanding privileges. These elites, who had ruled through a system of power based on family ties, tribal alliances, and control of local resources, strongly opposed any change that might diminish their influence. The introduction of a modern legal system, for example, was seen as an attempt to undermine the traditional practices of dispute resolution, which were deeply rooted in local communities. This clash between innovation and tradition further complicated the already difficult reform process.

On the economic front, Albania under Zog I remained a predominantly agricultural country, with an underdeveloped and poorly diversified economy. This economic context reflected the history of a country that had for centuries remained on the margins of major European trade routes, with a population largely devoted to subsistence farming and an almost nonexistent industrial sector. Zog attempted to change this situation by promoting economic development through the attraction of foreign investments, seeing them as an opportunity to initiate the much-desired modernization.

In particular, Fascist Italy became Albania’s main commercial and financial partner. This relationship with Italy provided essential capital and technology, but at the same time, it marked the beginning of an economic dependency that would have profound and lasting consequences.

Italy’s presence in Albania was not limited to the economic sphere; it also translated into growing political influence, which Zog had to manage with extreme caution. The risk of increasingly heavy foreign interference was evident, and Zog found himself having to balance the need for modernization with the necessity of maintaining a degree of national autonomy.

This dependency on foreign investments, while facilitating the launch of certain economic initiatives, also made Albania vulnerable to the pressures of major powers. Italy’s control over key sectors of the Albanian economy significantly limited Zog’s ability to implement independent economic policies and reinforced the perception that Albania was becoming increasingly an Italian protectorate.

Furthermore, Albania’s economy remained fragile, unable to sustain itself without external assistance, and attempts to initiate agrarian reform, despite initial promises, were never fully realized. Agrarian reform was intended to redistribute land to peasants, many of whom lived in extremely precarious conditions, but political and social resistance prevented its full implementation, leaving many of the structural problems afflicting the country’s economy unresolved.

In this context, the reign of Zog I was marked by a continuous effort to modernize and centralize power, amidst internal resistance and external pressures that made this process extremely complex and contradictory. Zog had to navigate between the aspirations for renewal and the practical difficulties of governing a country still deeply rooted in its traditions and vulnerable to external influences.

Albania’s International Relations During the Monarchical Period

The reign of Zog I unfolded in a complex international context, marked by rising tensions among the European great powers, whose geopolitical maneuvers profoundly influenced Albania’s fate. In this environment, Zog I had to craft an exceptionally careful and balanced foreign policy, aimed at maintaining the country’s independence while being acutely aware of Albania’s limited economic and military resources. Zog’s strategy was to seek a balance between the conflicting influences of European powers, particularly Italy, France, and Great Britain, in an effort to prevent Albania from falling under the control of a single nation.

Zog I initially sought to preserve the autonomy of his kingdom through a policy of rapprochement with various European powers. Maintaining cordial relations with France and Great Britain, two nations with a long history of influence and interests in the Balkans, was seen as a way to counterbalance the increasingly pressing influence of Italy. France, with its model of a secular republic and its cultural prestige, represented a valuable ally for Zog, capable of offering a counterweight to Mussolini’s Fascist Italy. Likewise, Great Britain, with its powerful navy and traditional policy of maintaining the balance of power in Europe, was viewed as a potential ally against Italian expansionist ambitions.

  King Zog and General Valle. Behind King Zog is General Arianitas.

Nevertheless, the growing economic dependence on Italy, driven by the need for funds and military support to stabilize the kingdom and modernize the country, made it increasingly difficult to maintain this balance. Albania’s strategic geographic location in the Mediterranean and its proximity to the Adriatic made it a key target in Italy’s territorial expansion plans. Mussolini, eager to bolster Italian influence in the Balkans, initially saw Zog as a useful ally but also as a figure who could be easily manipulated through economic control and diplomatic pressure.

In 1926, aware of Albania’s economic and military limitations, Zog was forced to sign a treaty of friendship and security with Italy. This agreement was not merely a military alliance but rather a complex pact that tied Albania’s independence to Italian support in exchange for significant economic and military concessions. While the treaty provided Zog with immediate support, it began to erode the country’s political autonomy. The agreement stipulated that Italy could influence Albania’s domestic and foreign policies, thereby consolidating its presence in the country.

This treaty was only the beginning of a series of subsequent agreements that further entrenched Italian influence in Albania. The following year, in 1927, the Treaty of Tirana was signed, marking another significant step toward deeper integration of Albania into Italy’s sphere of influence. This treaty went beyond guaranteeing a defensive alliance between the two countries; it formalized a series of military and political commitments that strengthened Rome’s control over Tirana. From this point on, Albanian foreign policy was increasingly dictated by Italian interests, and Zog, while still formally on the throne, found himself progressively relegated to the role of a monarch with little real decision-making power.

These agreements, although necessary to maintain the stability of Zog’s reign, led to Albania’s growing subordination to Rome’s interests. Italian influence became so pervasive that Albania began to lose its ability to act as an independent state, rendering it vulnerable to the expansionist ambitions of Mussolini’s Fascist regime. This precarious situation reached its peak towards the late 1930s as the international context further deteriorated with the rise of tensions that would eventually lead to the outbreak of World War II.

In 1939, with Europe on the brink of global conflict, Fascist Italy, now confident in its supremacy over Albania, decided to take action. Mussolini, eager to expand his colonial empire and assert Italy’s prestige as a world power, exploited Albania’s internal situation, characterized by increasing economic and political weakness, to invade the country. The lack of resources and the failure to build effective alliances left Zog with no alternatives. Lacking both internal and external support, the king was forced to flee into exile as Italian troops swiftly occupied Albanian territory.

The Italian occupation marked not only the end of Zog’s reign but also the loss of Albanian independence, an event with profound and lasting repercussions. The annexation of Albania into the Kingdom of Italy inaugurated a period of foreign domination that would alter the course of Albanian history, ushering in an era of uncertainty and conflict. This period of occupation not only ended the dream of an independent Albania under Zog’s leadership but also paved the way for future struggles for self-determination and national sovereignty.

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