Chapter 2 The First World War and Instability (1912-1920)

By Elton Varfi

Albania during the First World War

With the outbreak of World War I, Albania found itself plunged into a situation of extreme fragility and uncertainty. Although it had only achieved independence in 1912, the country was still at an embryonic stage in terms of building a robust and organised state apparatus. The young nation was therefore faced with the difficult challenge of establishing its own institutions at a particularly turbulent time in history.

Historical photo of irregular Albanian soldiers in Koblarë, Albania, during 1917-1918

At that time, the political and administrative fabric of Albania was still in an early state of organisation, lacking the compactness necessary to cope with multiplying external and internal pressures. This condition of structural weakness left the country vulnerable to the expansionist appetites of neighbouring and distant powers, which sought to exploit every opportunity to extend their influence over the Balkans.

The need for a capable administrative system and an effective national defence thus became pressing. Albania was called upon to make rapid progress in the creation of a functional bureaucracy and the formation of armed forces capable of protecting its newly acquired sovereignty. In this delicate historical phase, every political decision and every step towards state organisation was of crucial importance, shaping the country's future in a complex and often hostile international context.

This significant structural gap made Albania particularly exposed to the interests and expansionist aims of European powers, which were eager to extend their influence in a region that, although strategically important, remained highly unstable. Albania, with its crucial geographical position along the Adriatic coast and close to the main Balkan crossings, was seen as a key piece in the geopolitical strategies of nations such as Italy, Austria-Hungary and other major powers.

This vulnerability not only threatened Albanian sovereignty and internal stability, but also placed the country at the centre of complex international power games. Surrounding powers sought to exploit Albanian fragility to establish or expand their own spheres of influence, often without regard for the interests or self-determination of the Albanian people. In this context, any internal or external political movement had the potential to significantly influence the course of Albanian history, forcing the country to navigate with extreme caution between opposing pressures from neighbouring nations and great powers.

In this context of political and institutional precariousness, Albania was striving hard to assert its sovereignty and build a national identity, while being immersed in a tumultuous and often hostile international environment. The young state, grappling with the need to establish solid administrative and governance foundations, was also engaged in an ongoing battle to maintain its independence against external pressures that not only threatened its political autonomy, but also its territorial integrity.

This path of nation-building was fraught with challenges: Albania had to not only develop its institutions, but also try to unite different factions and ethnic groups under a single state vision. The urgent need for a cohesive national identity became increasingly crucial, as only through strong internal unity could the country resist divisions fomented by external interests and internal separatist temptations.

In this situation, the country relied on diplomacy and negotiation to navigate the complex waters of international relations, attempting to gain support and recognition from other nations to further consolidate its position as a legitimate and sovereign state.

During the conflict, the Albanian territory became the scene of crucial battles and vast stretches of its countryside were turned into battlefields. The opposing powers, in particular Italy and Austria-Hungary, were particularly active in trying to extend their influence in the Balkan region. These nations, perceiving Albania's strategic importance as an access route to the Adriatic and as a crucial connection point between East and West, worked hard to secure a dominant presence.

These expansion efforts were not limited to mere military manoeuvres, but also included attempts to establish protectorates or directly influence domestic politics. The presence of foreign troops on Albanian soil not only aggravated the situation of internal instability, but also fuelled a climate of uncertainty and tension, further complicating the country's national consolidation efforts. In this tumultuous context, Albania struggled to maintain its territorial integrity and to disentangle itself from the contradictory and often conflicting demands of the major powers.

These nations saw Albania not only as a territory of strategic advantage but also as a key pawn in the wider game of geopolitical control of the Balkans. The military manoeuvres and territorial ambitions of these great powers further aggravated the instability of the young nation, turning its landscape into a patchwork of conflicts and tensions.

The geographic importance of the Albanian territory, located at the crossroads of important sea and land routes, made it an irresistible target for powers eager to extend their radius of influence. As a result, the region became a battleground not only for territorial control but also for political influence, with each power seeking to impose governments friendly or directly subservient to its interests.

In this environment saturated with international power games, Albania struggled to maintain internal coherence and defend its sovereignty, often forced to negotiate precarious alliances and difficult compromises. Chronic instability not only undermined state-building efforts, but also threatened the possibility of developing a unified sense of national identity, essential for internal unity and resistance to the traumas it was subjected to from outside.

A particularly important event in this turbulent context was the accession to the throne of Prince William of Wied in March 1914. Invited by the European powers, he was appointed to lead the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Albania, with the ambition of stabilising the country. However, his reign was short-lived, lasting only six months, interrupted by intense internal turmoil and the worsening geopolitical situation due to the global conflict. This period, although short-lived, highlighted the difficulties inherent in governing a country that was deeply divided and lacked a solid administrative structure.

The challenges faced by William of Wied emblematically illustrated how difficult it was to establish a lasting order in a nation where regional loyalties and internal tensions constantly undermined efforts at state unification and modernisation. His attempt to establish a centralised government clashed with the reality of a society fragmented by ethnic divisions and conflicting local interests. His figure, while a symbol of hope for some, quickly became an object of controversy and resistance, reflecting the complexity of Albanian dynamics and the problems of imposing external solutions in turbulent national contexts.

European powers and the fate of Albania

Albania's fate during the First World War was strongly influenced by the strategies of the European powers, particularly Italy and Austria-Hungary. These nations, with their expansionist interests, considered Albania a vital territory, not only for the control of sea and land passages in the Adriatic, but also as a strategic point to extend their political and military influence in the Balkans.

European alliances on the eve of World War I

The ambitions of these powers transformed it into a field beset by geopolitical tensions. Albania's strategic importance stemmed from its geographical location, situated at the crossroads between Eastern and Western Europe and between the Mediterranean world and the Balkans. This made it a crucial node for any power interested in expanding its sphere of influence in south-eastern Europe.

During the war, manoeuvres by Italy and Austria-Hungary aimed not only at establishing military bases and controlling trade routes but also at influencing internal Albanian politics in order to secure an ally or, at least, non-hostile territory in the region. Such external interventions greatly complicated the internal political landscape in Albania, severely straining the young nation's attempts to build internal stability and assert its sovereignty.

The strategies of Italy and Austria-Hungary manifested themselves in a fervent competition for hegemony in the Balkan region, an arena often complicated by the struggle for supremacy between the powers. This intense power game frequently took place to the detriment of Albania's stability and independence. In this international context, the internal situation, already fragmented by ethnic and political divisions, was further complicated.

External meddling not only threatened Albanian sovereignty, but also fuelled a climate of uncertainty and conflict that was a significant obstacle to national efforts at self-determination and state-building. The actions of European powers directly influenced domestic politics, often catalysing local tensions and stimulating separatist movements or opposing factions that saw these large external actors as possible supporters of their own causes.

Moreover, these external dynamics distorted the normal political and social development of the country, forcing Albania to move in a complex international environment without having a fully consolidated state structure or a robust domestic political consensus. This external interference, therefore, not only destabilised the country, but also delayed the formation of an effective and universally recognised central government, which was essential for the promotion of national unification and progress towards true political and administrative independence.

This situation of continuous tension and power games between major nations highlighted Albania's vulnerability in the European geopolitical context, turning the country into a veritable battleground for external interests. This reality showed how difficult it was for a small emerging nation to navigate the turbulent waters of international politics at the time.

The strategies of the European powers, including Italy and Austria-Hungary, reflected a complex web of territorial and political ambitions aimed at extending their influence in the Balkans. However, it is essential to recognise that these actions were not merely coercive but also participated in a broader dynamic of power and negotiation in which Albania actively sought allies and support for its nascent sovereignty.

These efforts to impose their will on Albania served to strengthen strategic positions in view of further diplomatic and military confrontations in Europe and beyond. For Albania, any attempt to establish autonomous and independent governance clashed with these external ambitions, significantly complicating internal decision-making processes and the formation of a cohesive national identity.

The instability induced not only held back economic and social development, but also perpetuated a state of political fragility that made it difficult for Albania to assert its voice in an international context dominated by much more powerful actors. This historical period, therefore, not only testifies to the difficulties Albania faced in trying to define its own national path, but also underlines the complexity of international relations in a world marked by imperialist conflicts and rivalries.

Seeing Albania as a focal point for control of the Adriatic Sea, the European powers actively sought to consolidate their presence and influence in the region. A crucial event that illustrates Albania's powerlessness in determining its own future was the London Pact of 1915. This secret agreement between the Entente powers provided for a division of Balkan territories, including significant parts of Albanian territory, which would be allocated to Serbia, Montenegro and Greece as a reward for their support in the struggle against the Central Empires.

This arbitrary partition of the Albanian territory, without the participation or consent of Albania itself, demonstrated the vulnerability and marginalisation of the country in the international context. Albania thus found itself suffering the consequences of decisions made by external powers, which redefined the borders and influenced the future of the country according to their own strategic and political interests. This dynamic highlighted not only the struggle of a small nation to maintain its sovereignty in an era of intense geopolitical rivalries, but also the difficulty of protecting its territorial and political integrity in an international environment dominated by more powerful and influential actors.

This understanding was reached without the participation or consent of Albania, which thus found itself subject to external decisions crucial to its future. The clauses of the pact clearly revealed how the great powers regarded it more as a piece to be moved around on the European geopolitical chessboard than as a sovereign actor with its own rights and interests. The lack of an autonomous voice in these negotiations deeply undermined the possibility for Albania to pursue a policy of self-determination, underlining the vulnerability of small nations in an era dominated by imperialist ambitions and military alliances.

This agreement, made between the Entente powers, provided for the ceding of significant parts of Albanian territory to Serbia, Montenegro and Greece, as a reward for their support in the war. This decision highlighted the vulnerability of a young state like Albania, whose destiny was being divided and redistributed without any real consideration for its sovereignty or the aspirations of its people. This pact profoundly marked the Albanian perception of international dynamics, confirming the difficulty of maintaining autonomy in a European context dominated by others' interests.

The impact of this agreement was tangible and lasting, as Albanian lands were promised to other nations without the involvement of the Albanian government, thus undermining the territorial integrity and political stability of the nation. Moreover, the discovery of these secret pacts intensified the Albanians' feelings of distrust towards the European powers, fuelling a fervent nationalism aimed at opposing these impositions and claiming the right to self-determination. This phase of Albanian history reflects the struggle faced by a nation to assert its identity and sovereignty in a time of turmoil and change.

The London Pact and the Paris Peace Conference: The Twists and Turns of Albanian Destiny

The London Pact, concluded in 1915 by the Entente powers without Albanian participation, provided for the division of significant Albanian territories between Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 offered Albania a platform to claim a revision of these agreements. Despite the promises of the pact, Albania was recognised as an independent principality, partially annulling previous territorial agreements and setting a precedent for the respect of Albanian sovereignty.

The "Big Four" at the Paris Peace Conference: from left to right, David Lloyd George, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Georges Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson. (Photo sourced from Wikipedia)

The Pact of London, concluded against a backdrop of global war and power games between the Entente nations, was a clear example of how national destinies could be drastically altered by decisions made in the absence of the parties directly concerned. The specific provisions of the pact included:

- the cession to Serbia of significant portions of northern Albania, areas that offered strategic access to the Adriatic and were crucial for Serbia in the prospect of an exit to the sea.

- the attribution to Montenegro of areas in north-eastern Albania, mountainous regions that aligned geographically and culturally with Montenegro itself.

- the allocation to Greece of territories in southern Albania, which not only expanded Greek access to the Adriatic coast, but also aimed to establish more secure and defined borders for Greece in the Balkan context.

These decisions had lasting repercussions on the Albanian perception of international dynamics and their struggle for sovereignty. The Paris Peace Conference offered Albania a platform, albeit a fragile one, to claim its autonomy. During this conference, despite the preliminary territorial divisions promised by the London Pact, Albania managed to gain recognition as an independent principality. This recognition not only partially revoked previous agreements, but also set a precedent for the future international treatment of Albania as a sovereign entity.

These events illustrate the complexity and interdependence of nations in the modern era, where international treaties and conferences can drastically alter national maps and histories. Albania, in its post-war journey, thus found a new trajectory of national development, albeit one marked by constant challenges and compromises.

The official recognition and implementation of the decisions taken during the London Pact occurred mainly in the context of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. There, Albania was at the centre of complex negotiations in which the world's great powers had to balance the territorial claims of neighbouring countries with Albanian aspirations for independence. During this conference, Albania was formally recognised as an independent principality, guaranteed by the great powers, although border issues remained deeply open to dispute.

The decisions taken in Paris represented a significant revision of the commitments made in the London Pact, adapted to the changed political circumstances and international pressures that had emerged in the post-war period. These changes reflected the complex balance between the desire for European stability and respect for the principle of national self-determination, which was gaining increasing acceptance in the international diplomacy of the time.

The recognition of Albania as an independent state not only annulled some of the territorial promises of 1915, but also set an important precedent for the protection of small states against the expansionist ambitions of the major powers. This recognition process, however, still left many open questions and unresolved disputes, which would continue to influence Albania's international relations and domestic politics for years to come. This moment in Albanian history marked a decisive turning point, defining the guidelines of sovereignty and national identity in the new world order that was emerging.

The Birth of the Modern Albanian State

In the period following the First World War, despite internal challenges and external pressures, Albania took significant steps towards nationalisation. This process was characterised by the introduction of administrative reforms and the construction of a state apparatus that aimed to establish effective governance, recognising and integrating the country's diverse ethnic and regional realities in order to promote a unified sense of nationality.

Original Act of Declaration of Albanian Independence, preserved by Minister and signatory Lef Nosi. (Photo sourced from Wikipedia)

Despite being continually tested by internal challenges and external pressures, Albania resolutely embarked on the path of building the foundations of a modern nation, engaging in a profound institutional transformation and renewal.

This nationalisation process was characterised by the adoption of new administrative structures and legislative reforms aimed at establishing a functioning and accountable government. In addition, Albania worked to create a legal system and internal order that could effectively meet the needs of the population, while guaranteeing national order and security. Despite the fact that the young nation faced considerable obstacles, such as political fragmentation and the influence of external powers, the commitment to state-building continued with tenacity.

This fervent period of nation-building also saw the strengthening of Albanian identity, with a renewed sense of patriotism and the aspiration for a future of prosperity and autonomy. The Albanians, animated by a strong desire for self-determination, worked to overcome internal divisions and to position Albania as a sovereign and respected actor on the international stage. In this context, each step towards modernisation represented not only a technical or bureaucratic advancement, but also an affirmation of the will to live free and independent.

A pivotal moment in the consolidation process of the modern Albanian state was Albania's admission into the League of Nations in 1920. This crucial event not only strengthened the international recognition of the Albanian state, but was also instrumental in legitimising its sovereignty on a global stage. Entry into the League of Nations marked a decisive step towards establishing Albania as a sovereign and independent nation, recognised and respected by the international community.

This international recognition had a profound impact on Albania's political status, giving it greater authority in its diplomatic relations and a more influential voice in international affairs. In addition, membership in the international body gave it a platform to actively participate in the shaping of international policies and norms, thus helping to shape a world order that also reflected its interests and priorities.

Admission into the League of Nations also represented a commitment by Albania to respect the ideals of peace and cooperation that the organisation promoted, further consolidating the foundations on which the country would build its foreign and domestic policy. This commitment helped Albania stabilise its relations with neighbouring countries and navigate the complex geopolitical dynamics of the post-war period with more confidence.

This phase of state consolidation proved crucial not only in establishing Albania's administrative and political foundations, but also in forging its cultural and political identity, contributing significantly to defining the country's role and perception in the European and international context. Admission into the League of Nations in 1920 symbolised a fundamental recognition of Albania as a sovereign entity, consolidating its commitment to the principles of cooperation and global peace. This event not only marked a decisive step towards political stabilisation and international recognition of its independence, but also strengthened the perceived legitimacy of the Albanian government both domestically and internationally.

Albania's participation in this global organisation emphasised its aspiration to actively contribute to the international community by joining collective efforts for global peace and security. Such engagement helped improve diplomatic relations with other nations and promote an image of a responsible and cooperative state on the world stage. Ultimately, this stage in Albanian history not only strengthened its sovereignty but also helped shape Albania as an influential and respected actor in international politics, highlighting its crucial role in regional dynamics and beyond.

The Congress of Lushnje: A Declaration of Sovereignty

The Lushnje Congress, held from 21 to 31 January 1920, represented a decisive turning point in the post-war transition period for Albania. This fundamental assembly emerged as a vigorous response to external pressures and the still unstable internal situation, clearly outlining the future of the country through a firmly independent policy. The convening of the congress was an act of self-determination, aimed at consolidating national unity and reaffirming Albanian sovereignty at a time of global political uncertainty.

Delegates of the Congress of Lushnje. (Photo sourced from Wikipedia)

During the congress, the Albanian delegates, representing different parts of the country, decisively manifested the nation's independence, firmly rejecting any international agreement that could compromise their sovereignty. This clear position was an expression of the deep desire for self-government and national freedom, marking a definitive break with the foreign impositions and influences that had characterised recent Albanian history. In this context of marked national affirmation, the participants in the congress not only focused on domestic politics, but also elected a new government, which undertook to establish the foundations of a national armed force, expressly dedicated to the defence of the country's borders. The establishment of this armed force was intended not only as a means of defence against potential external threats, but also as a powerful symbol of sovereignty and self-defence capability, crucial for the strengthening of Albanian identity and autonomy.

The reaffirmation of independence and the creation of autonomous defence structures were seen by the delegates as essential for the protection of territorial integrity and the promotion of lasting stability, which could allow Albania to face the complex international dynamics of the post-war period with confidence. The Lushnje Congress, therefore, not only outlined the guidelines for a more cohesive and representative national government, but also laid the foundations for a future in which Albania could emerge as a sovereign and respected state, fully in control of its own political and military decisions.

The Lushnje Congress not only reinforced the feeling of unity and national identity among Albanians, but also formalised Albania as a sovereign state in the international arena. With these decisive actions, the congress marked a milestone in Albania's modern history, underlining its commitment to self-determination and political stability.

This significant phase in Albanian state consolidation represented a clear break from external influences, affirming the country's willingness to navigate the future as an independent and sovereign nation. Through autonomous decisions and the establishment of its own institutions, the Congress of Lushnje emphasised the Albanian determination to forge a sovereign path, freed from subordination to foreign powers that had previously dominated the country's politics and economy.

In this new era of autonomy, Albania set out to build a society based on principles of legality and internal justice, with the aim of developing a political system that reflected the true aspirations of its people. The reforms adopted were aimed at promoting an accountable and transparent government, capable of responding effectively to the needs of its citizens and maintaining security and public order.

Overall, the Lushnje Congress had a transformative impact on Albania's political direction, positioning it as a credible and respected actor on the world stage and helping to establish an environment of trust and cooperation within the nation. This important event not only celebrated independence, but ushered in an era of national renewal, crucial for Albania's future progress and development.

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