Chapter 6: The Transition to Democracy (1985-1992)
Chapter 6
The Transition to Democracy (1985-1992)
by Elton Varfi
With the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, Eastern Europe experienced a wave of political and social transformations that led to the dissolution of communist regimes. In Albania, the most isolated country of the Eastern bloc, the democratization process was particularly complex and painful. This chapter examines the transition from communist dictatorship to the birth of a democratic system, a period marked by dramatic events and radical changes. The death of Enver Hoxha in 1985 represented a turning point for the regime, though not its immediate end. Albania remained tied to its authoritarian model for another seven years, until the emergence of the first free elections and the formation of an embryonic civil society.
The Death of Enver Hoxha and the Decline of Albanian Communism
The Legacy of Hoxha
Enver Hoxha ruled Albania with an autocratic grip from 1944 until his death on April 11, 1985, solidifying a system of total state control deeply rooted in dogmatic communist ideology. This system not only suppressed all forms of political dissent but also minimized personal and collective freedoms, enforcing pervasive control over citizens' daily lives. The economy was strictly planned, with the private sector completely abolished, leading to prolonged stagnation. Socially, the regime fostered a culture of suspicion through extensive use of secret police, instilling fear and isolation among the population and irreparably damaging social cohesion.
Over four decades, the Albanian regime pursued extreme isolationist policies, breaking ties with the Soviet Union in 1961 and later with China in 1978. These decisions cemented the country's autarky, turning it into a politically self-sufficient yet highly vulnerable experiment. This isolation manifested in the daily lives of citizens, who faced chronic shortages of consumer goods, an ineffective healthcare system, and limited access to foreign information and technology. Restrictions on mobility, both domestic and international, exacerbated a sense of alienation, while shortages of basic necessities like clothing and food forced many to resort to makeshift solutions for survival.
At the time of Hoxha's death at age 76, he left behind a deeply centralized political system upheld by a rigid bureaucratic network and an extensive repressive apparatus. This system, however, was inherently fragile, relying more on coercion than genuine consensus. The Albanian Party of Labour (PLA), which had enjoyed uncontested dominance, was tasked with managing an uncertain succession, placing the responsibility in the hands of Ramiz Alia. Alia faced the daunting challenge of maintaining apparent internal stability in an international context undergoing rapid change, marked by reforms in communist countries and growing pressures for democratization.
The Beginning of the Decline
The death of Hoxha marked the beginning of an unstoppable decline for Albanian communism. Although Ramiz Alia initially attempted to preserve the authoritarian model of his predecessor, the socio-economic and geopolitical context made a transition inevitable. The reforms initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union, such as perestroika and glasnost, combined with the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe, exerted significant pressure on Albania, which had historically adhered rigidly to ideological orthodoxy.
Unlike countries like Poland or Hungary, which had begun gradual political and economic liberalization, Albania remained rigidly closed, delaying any form of reform. This isolation exacerbated the internal crisis, widening the gap between Albania and other Eastern European nations already on the path to democratization.
Domestically, the Albanian economy showed signs of structural collapse. The 1980s were marked by an acute economic crisis, highlighted by the closure of numerous state-owned factories, a sharp decline in agricultural production, and a collapse in exports. The depletion of strategic reserves forced the government to ration basic necessities, such as food and fuel, with frequent power outages paralyzing both productive activities and daily life. The shortage of essential goods reached critical levels, leaving many families entirely reliant on agricultural self-sufficiency for survival. Skyrocketing inflation and industrial stagnation fueled growing public discontent, which found expression in an increasing number of protests against the regime.
This context, further aggravated by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the subsequent dissolution of communist political order in neighboring countries, accelerated the system's disintegration. The Albanian Party of Labour (PLA), which had embodied absolute power for decades, suddenly found itself ill-equipped to face the complexities of the new reality. The fragmented leadership, incapable of effectively responding to emerging challenges, revealed the inherent weakness of a system entirely dependent on Hoxha’s persona. Alia's inability to implement significant reforms without undermining the party's authority further deepened the decline.
This transitional phase, characterized by the gradual erosion of authoritarian institutions, paved the way for the end of communism in Albania and a series of profound transformations. Politically, the legalization of opposition parties led to the emergence of a multi-party system. The adoption of a provisional constitution in 1991 formally marked the shift from a communist regime to a democratic state. Economically, the first market reforms were initiated, including price liberalization and the privatization of some state-owned enterprises, though these changes were often chaotic and accompanied by significant social difficulties.
Despite their complexities and contradictions, these transformations laid the groundwork for Albania's future development as a democratic state with an open market economy.
The First Signs of Crisis
In the 1980s, Albania increasingly displayed the fragility of a political and economic system in decline. The economic model imposed by the regime, based on forced industrialization and collectivized agriculture, could no longer sustain real growth, trapped in chronic stagnation that stifled progress. For instance, many factories built in previous decades, such as the textile plants in Berat and Fier, operated with outdated machinery, unable to compete with modern technologies.
Similarly, the collectivized agricultural sector suffered from extremely low productivity: agricultural cooperatives failed to deliver adequate yields, often due to poor mechanization and a lack of chemical fertilizers. Additionally, resources were distributed inefficiently, fueling discontent among rural workers already exhausted by harsh living conditions.
This state of economic paralysis was further exacerbated by international isolation—a political choice that cut the country off from foreign investments and the technological innovations necessary to compete on the global stage. Self-excluded from major world markets, Albania struggled to meet even the basic needs of its population.
The locked doors of a bakery become a symbol of Albania's food crisis, as a desperate crowd gathers to buy loaves made from Turkish flour. Photo by Nicole Bengiveno.
During this time, political repression—one of the state's principal tools of control for decades—continued to stifle any attempt at dissent. Even the faintest voices of protest were swiftly silenced, as demonstrated by the 1985 case of university students in Tirana who attempted to organize a demonstration demanding greater academic freedoms but were arrested within hours. Similarly, writers and intellectuals who dared to challenge the party line were either silenced or imprisoned. This repression deprived society of avenues to express its discontent. However, despite the oppressive climate, signs of growing dissatisfaction began to surface, particularly among the younger, educated segments of the population. This discontent, though still latent and scattered, reflected the frustration of a people worn down by widespread poverty and the lack of fundamental freedoms.
Daily living conditions were progressively worsening: shortages of essential goods such as oil, sugar, and flour were commonplace, forcing families to endure long queues outside stores. Food rationing was particularly severe; for instance, each citizen was entitled to only a few hundred grams of meat per month. Crumbling infrastructure failed to meet the population's needs, with frequent power outages and interruptions in potable water making daily life exceedingly difficult. Public transportation, often inadequate and overcrowded, further underscored the country’s state of decay. In this context, families struggled to meet basic needs, while younger generations, increasingly aware of the opportunities being denied to them, harbored a growing, silent anger.
State propaganda, once a powerful tool of persuasion, began to lose its effectiveness, unable to disguise the glaring contradictions between the regime’s promises and the harsh realities experienced by the population. A striking example was the government’s 1983 campaign celebrating agricultural production as "the highest in the nation’s history," despite empty food warehouses and chronic shortages plaguing families. Such propagandistic messages, disseminated through state-run radio and newspapers, only deepened the disillusionment among citizens, who were increasingly aware of the disconnect between official rhetoric and their daily lives. Even official celebrations, such as military parades and Party ceremonies, once moments of cohesion and national pride, became hollow and meaningless events for the populace.
This period marked the onset of a crisis that would gradually erode the foundations of the system, paving the way for the epochal changes that would transform Albania in the years to come, including the collapse of the communist regime, an opening toward the West, and the beginning of a challenging transition to democracy and a market economy. The combination of economic, political, and social factors—deeply interconnected—created mounting pressure that the regime would soon be unable to contain. The inability of institutions to respond adequately to internal and external challenges signaled the point of no return for a system already irreparably weakened.
This prelude to an era of radical transformations forced Albania to fundamentally reconsider its political, economic, and social identity, confronting an uncertain and challenging future.
The Failed Reforms of Ramiz Alia
With the death of Enver Hoxha in 1985, the Albanian Party of Labour entered a phase of profound legitimacy and stability crisis. Ramiz Alia, the designated successor and advocate of Hoxhaist continuity, inherited a political and economic system increasingly unable to withstand internal and external pressures. The Albanian leadership faced an ever more challenging international context, marked by the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the spread of reforms in Eastern European countries.
Between 1985 and 1989, Alia attempted to introduce reforms which, though presented as innovative, proved limited in scope and incapable of halting the regime’s decline.
First, Alia sought to promote a modest opening toward the West by encouraging cultural exchanges and introducing some adjustments to the rigidly centralized economic system. Among the main initiatives were allowing a limited number of citizens to travel abroad and granting permissions to receive remittances from the Albanian diaspora, an economic flow that had been severely restricted until then. These efforts symbolized a departure from the isolationism imposed by the Hoxha regime but did not significantly improve living conditions. On the contrary, they fueled growing expectations for change.
Popular discontent began to manifest more visibly, with cultural ferment spreading through both cities and rural areas and an increasingly lively clandestine debate on the need for profound transformations.
In economic terms, some agricultural cooperatives were authorized to engage in market activities, such as direct sales of local products and autonomous management of productive resources. Although these reforms aimed to boost productivity and introduce partial decentralization, their impact was limited. The lack of a clear strategy, coupled with oppressive bureaucracy, hindered the benefits of these initiatives. Cooperatives faced administrative constraints that significantly reduced their growth potential.
While other Soviet bloc countries, such as Poland and Hungary, were undertaking more decisive reforms to adapt to geopolitical changes, Albania remained trapped in structural paralysis, unable to seize the opportunities presented by international détente. Furthermore, the absence of foreign investment, combined with rigid monetary policy, further aggravated the economic situation.
On the social and cultural front, Alia adopted a cautious approach. He attempted to soften the regime's ideological rigor with symbolic concessions toward religion and artistic freedom. Unlike countries such as Czechoslovakia, where the church and cultural movements became drivers of change, Albania's openings remained extremely limited. Some private religious practices were permitted, and cultural expressions hinting at greater freedom of expression were tolerated, albeit timidly.
However, these measures proved insufficient to meet the growing aspirations of a population weary of the rigid impositions of the past. The absence of genuine cultural plurality kept ideological oppression alive, depriving society of authentic spaces for free and critical engagement.
Alia's reforms, rather than strengthening the regime, further highlighted its fragility. In 1989, the wave of revolutions sweeping through Eastern Europe's communist regimes also reached Albania. The first signs of dissent began to spread, revealing discontent that was becoming increasingly difficult to suppress. Protests were no longer confined to intellectual elites but involved broader segments of the population, from young students to agricultural workers. This phenomenon was an unequivocal signal of the regime's loss of control.
Alia's inability to effectively address demands for renewal marked the beginning of the end for the communist regime.
The following years were characterized by a tumultuous decade of transition. The country faced a political and institutional vacuum that fostered instability, compounded by a severe economic crisis. The collapse of centralized structures gave way to unchecked privatization, often accompanied by cronyism and corruption, which deepened social inequalities.
The population, already strained by decades of isolation, faced mass unemployment and emergency migrations to Italy and Greece. In this context, the country's already precarious infrastructure further deteriorated, making access to essential services such as healthcare and education increasingly difficult.
The political challenges were equally significant. The lack of clear consensus among the new political forces that emerged from the regime's dissolution perpetuated a climate of instability. Moreover, the transition to a market economy was accompanied by a series of ineffective policies that harmed the most vulnerable segments of the population while favoring an emerging oligarchy.
This period of chaos deeply scarred Albanian society, leaving marks still visible in the country's social and economic fabric.
In this framework, Albania struggled to lay the foundations for a democratic system and a sustainable economy, navigating one of the most complex and challenging periods in its modern history.
The Democratization Process and the First Free Elections
The Wave of Revolutions in Eastern Europe
The wave of revolutions that swept through Eastern Europe in 1989 marked a pivotal turning point in contemporary history, bringing about the collapse of communist regimes that had held unchallenged power for over four decades. This historic upheaval featured extraordinary events such as the fall of the Berlin Wall, a symbol of oppression and ideological division, and the semi-free elections in Poland that secured the victory of Solidarność, led by Lech Wałęsa. In Hungary, the opening of the border with Austria became a milestone in dismantling the Iron Curtain, while in Czechoslovakia, the Velvet Revolution demonstrated the possibility of a peaceful transition to democracy.
Albania, though enveloped in self-imposed isolation and ruled by one of the most rigid and autarkic regimes of the socialist bloc, could not escape the centrifugal force of change sweeping the continent. As neighboring states embarked on paths toward democratization, the Albanian government found itself increasingly pressured to address internal discontent and the international call for reform.
The Albanian leadership, embodied by Ramiz Alia following Enver Hoxha's death, faced mounting internal and external challenges. Economically, Albania suffered from chronic shortages of basic necessities, with an inefficient production system unable to meet the population's needs. Socially, the repression of dissent and international isolation had led to growing dissatisfaction among citizens, who were exhausted by years of deprivation and restrictions.
Albanian society, deeply scarred by the regime's autarkic policies, increasingly displayed a desire for openness and change, as the first cracks began to appear in the monolithic power structure. The government sought to preserve the ideological purity of Hoxhaist communism, even as political and social fissures became evident.
Alia's strategy was marked by a dual ambiguity: on one hand, he ignored international pressures for reform; on the other, he firmly repressed growing internal dissent in a society increasingly frustrated by poverty and diplomatic isolation. Furthermore, the economic system proved incapable of meeting the population's needs, exacerbating tensions further.
Despite the regime's efforts to maintain control, the force of change sweeping across Eastern Europe would soon reach Albania, setting the stage for a transformative period in the country’s history.
Bulletins posted on a window in Tirana reflect the early steps toward democracy, while the general strikes of 1991 shut down factories and mines, marking a country in transformation. Photo by Nicole Bengiveno.
The wave of revolutions that swept Eastern Europe in 1989 represented a turning point in contemporary history, marking the collapse of communist regimes that had exercised uncontested power for over four decades. This historic upheaval included extraordinary events such as the fall of the Berlin Wall, a symbol of oppression and ideological division, and the semi-free elections in Poland that secured the victory of Solidarność, led by Lech Wałęsa. In Hungary, the opening of the border with Austria became a milestone in dismantling the Iron Curtain, while in Czechoslovakia, the Velvet Revolution demonstrated that a peaceful transition to democracy was possible even in the most oppressive regimes. These events inspired hope and determination among Albanians, despite the suffocating control exerted by their regime.
In Albania, the situation was more complex and uncertain. Decades of deprivation and restrictions had fueled widespread popular discontent, which began to surface openly. In December 1990, the city of Shkodra became the site of the first protests, while university students in Tirana organized to demand political reforms and civil liberties. This student movement, which quickly gained national momentum, posed an unprecedented challenge to a regime accustomed to harshly suppressing any form of dissent.
Spontaneous demonstrations spread across Albanian cities, reflecting both the desperation of the population and their desire for radical change. These protests peaked on December 11, 1990, when thousands of students and citizens took to the streets in Tirana. For the first time, the wall of fear that had paralyzed the population for decades began to crumble, replaced by a collective courage that fueled demands for political transformation. Ramiz Alia, aware of the growing tensions, attempted a compromise by announcing limited reforms, such as allowing the formation of political parties other than the Party of Labour of Albania. However, these partial concessions only intensified demands for change, accelerating an already unfolding process toward a decisive confrontation. At the same time, the regime began losing control over the security forces, traditionally a pillar of its stability.
In January 1991, the establishment of the Democratic Party of Albania, led by Sali Berisha, marked a historic turning point. This political organization not only represented a significant break from the political monopoly of the Party of Labour but also emerged as a catalyst for the democratic aspirations of a population exhausted by a long authoritarian regime. However, the Democratic Party faced formidable challenges in its early phase. The lack of political experience among its members, combined with limited financial and organizational resources, complicated its consolidation as a cohesive opposition force. Furthermore, it had to contend with a deeply polarized society and the hostility of a state apparatus still largely controlled by the Party of Labour. Despite this, the Democratic Party succeeded in mobilizing support in urban areas and among younger segments of the population, laying the groundwork for the change that would culminate in the country’s democratic transition.
The year 1991 was a crucial year of transition. The economic situation was in collapse: endless queues for food, energy shortages, and an unprecedented infrastructure crisis exacerbated public frustration. The first multiparty elections, held on March 31, 1991, revealed a divided country. While the Party of Labour retained a relative majority due to state control and propaganda, the Democratic Party emerged as a significant political force. The vote, while a step forward, exposed the deep social and economic fractures that would continue to influence the transition process.
Social tensions reached their peak with symbolic episodes, such as the toppling of Enver Hoxha’s mausoleum on February 20, 1991, an act that marked the symbolic end of communist power. However, the path to democracy was far from linear. The collapsing economy drove thousands of Albanians to emigrate, with dramatic exoduses like the one in March 1991, when thousands boarded overcrowded ships in the ports of Durrës and Vlorë, seeking refuge in Italy. These mass migrations were not only an attempt to escape poverty but also a clear manifestation of the failure of the country’s political and economic system.
Under increasing pressure, Ramiz Alia attempted to maintain a fragile balance, but his efforts proved futile. The elections of April 1992 brought a decisive victory for the Democratic Party, marking the end of the communist regime and the beginning of a new phase in Albanian history. Alia was forced to resign, making way for Sali Berisha, the country’s first democratically elected leader. This transition not only officially ended the communist era but also ushered in a period of profound political and social transformations that would shape Albania’s future. The elections of 1992 represented a fundamental turning point: they signified the shift from an authoritarian to a democratic system but also revealed the fragility of the new direction. The legacy of this event manifested in an unstable political framework, characterized by deep polarization and a society still grappling with the scars of its past. Additionally, economic difficulties remained a significant obstacle, as the transition to a market system required structural reforms that often faced resistance. Despite these challenges, the elections of 1992 marked a trajectory of hope and resilience, laying the groundwork for a slow but gradual process of integration into the international arena and national reconstruction. The new challenges included building democratic institutions, overcoming political divisions, and attracting international investments to revive a devastated economy.
The First Protest Demonstrations
The first demonstrations of dissent that marked the collapse of the communist regime in Albania emerged in December 1990, within a historical context characterized by profound political and social changes across Eastern Europe. As the walls of the Cold War crumbled—exemplified by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the peaceful revolutions in Czechoslovakia and Poland—Albania, the last bastion of uncompromising Stalinism, began to succumb under the weight of decades of isolation and oppression.
The fall of communist regimes in neighboring countries, combined with the spread of new ideas and an increasing awareness of economic and social inequalities, provided a catalyst for the awakening of the Albanian people. This movement represented a critical and irreversible moment in the country’s history, where hope for a different future began to take shape amidst the ruins of a system no longer able to sustain itself.
Tirana, the capital, along with smaller cities, became the stage for persistent and fervent protests that reflected widespread dissatisfaction and the collective desire for change from an entire generation. Leading this mobilization were primarily university students, joined by young workers from the manufacturing and construction sectors.
Their initial demands, focused on improved economic conditions, quickly evolved into a broader political agenda that included calls for civil liberties, political rights, and a transition to a democratic system, marking the beginning of the end of decades of oppression.
With national flags stripped of the communist star, Albania's new generation takes to the streets to claim their voice, a symbol of liberation repressed for decades. Photo by Nicole Bengiveno.
The socioeconomic context of Albania during that period was characterized by a deep and systemic crisis caused by failed economic policies and the international isolation imposed by the communist regime. Forced collectivization, the abolition of private property, and the rigidity of the planned economy had led to stagnant agricultural productivity and widespread industrial inefficiency. To this were added international sanctions and the breakdown of relations with most countries, which further exacerbated the shortage of consumer goods and the isolation from foreign trade. The influence of the Soviet bloc’s crisis and changes in neighboring countries heightened the perception of backwardness and isolation, contributing to a growing sense of dissatisfaction and frustration among the population.
The planned economy, now collapsing, was a victim of decades of international isolation, mismanagement, and widespread corruption. Albanian cities were trapped in a state of stagnation, with outdated infrastructure, an inefficient production system, and chronic shortages of essential goods fueling widespread discontent. The restrictions imposed by the regime, combined with the lack of economic and social prospects, exacerbated public frustration in a population already burdened by precarious living conditions.
In this context, young people, especially university students, emerged as catalysts for change, finding inspiration in the reform movements developing in Eastern Europe, where other communist regimes were collapsing. The events in Berlin, Bucharest, and Prague resonated strongly within Albanian universities, instilling courage and determination.
The regime's initial response was severe and violent, orchestrated by security forces, including arbitrary arrests of demonstrators, public beatings, and the use of tear gas to disperse crowds. In some cases, paramilitary units intervened with the intent to intimidate protesters through nighttime raids on university dormitories. However, such measures failed to suppress the movement and instead fueled a reaction of solidarity and outrage among the population. On the contrary, government brutality contributed to strengthening popular support for the demonstrators.
A symbolic episode occurred at the University of Tirana campus, where police intervened to disperse a protest but were met with chants and slogans openly denouncing the authoritarian regime of Enver Hoxha and his successor, Ramiz Alia. Initially confined to students, the mobilization gradually expanded, involving intellectuals, workers, and even some dissident members of the Party of Labour, increasing pressure on the government. The role of intellectuals was particularly significant, as their participation lent greater legitimacy to the movement and contributed to elaborating a more structured political vision.
One of the symbolic events of the period occurred on December 9, 1990, when a group of about five hundred students organized a strategic sit-in in central Tirana, near the historic Skanderbeg Square. The growing participation, which reached thousands of people throughout the day, provoked an immediate and concerned response from the government, which deployed riot police to disperse the crowd. Despite the intimidation, the demonstrators remained united, using signs and slogans to draw attention to the need for political reforms and the demand for the resignation of Ramiz Alia’s government.
This event marked a turning point in popular mobilization, showing that the regime was no longer able to contain dissent. On this occasion, one of the movement’s most iconic slogans emerged: "Liri, Demokraci!" ("Freedom, Democracy!"). This motto, embodying the hope and determination of an entire generation, became the unofficial manifesto of a people seeking political emancipation.
In the following days, the demonstrations quickly spread to cities like Durrës, Shkodër, and Vlora, with popular participation steadily increasing. The tenacity and scope of the movement highlighted the first cracks in the system, forcing the regime to confront an irreversible crisis. Accounts from the time reveal how squares, once silent and empty, transformed into places of debate, confrontation, and collective hope.
A key element of this mobilization was the ability of student leaders to maintain a nonviolent discipline, despite provocations and threats. This approach helped gain broader support from the population, including some figures close to the regime who began to distance themselves from Alia’s government. The role of international media was also crucial: reports and photographs of the protests reached global audiences, drawing attention to the courage of the Albanian people and the difficulties they faced in their struggle for freedom.
These events marked the prelude to an epochal transformation for Albania. The protests of December 1990 not only paved the way for the dissolution of the communist regime but also initiated a process of profound political and social reform that would shape the country’s future.
In the following months, new political parties emerged, including the Democratic Party, the first to openly challenge the Albanian Party of Labour. This period also marked the beginning of a wave of economic liberalizations, albeit marked by uncertainties and difficulties, aimed at transitioning the country toward a market system.
On the social level, the Albanian population began reclaiming their fundamental rights, including freedom of expression and association, which had been repressed until then. Internationally, Albania gradually resumed diplomatic relations with many states, opening the door to new opportunities for cooperation and support.
Despite the challenges that followed, this period represented a turning point, showing that the courage and determination of a people could indeed rewrite history. Despite the tensions and conflicts that would characterize the democratic transition, the protests of December 1990 broke the wall of fear and silence that had stifled society for decades.
Led by the determination and courage of a new generation, the nation embarked on a long and complex journey toward a democratic and independent future. This process was not without contradictions: the transition from dictatorship to democracy brought with it social, economic, and political tensions. Yet, the foundations of freedom had been laid, thanks to the sacrifice and determination of those who dared to raise their voices at a crucial moment in history.
The Political Reforms
The political reforms introduced by Ramiz Alia in 1991 marked an epochal turning point in the contemporary history of Albania, a country deeply scarred by the contradictions and rigidities of the communist regime. Under the growing pressure of widespread popular demonstrations, led by emerging leaders and civic organizations voicing demands such as an end to political repression, economic liberalization, and the recognition of fundamental civil rights, Alia was forced to embark on a path of reforms that would radically transform the political landscape of the country.
Among the key measures adopted was the legalization of political parties, an event that ended the monopoly of the Albanian Party of Labour (PLA) and officially paved the way for political pluralism. Additionally, it was established that free and pluralistic elections would be held, marking the first concrete step toward democratic transition after more than four decades of authoritarian rule.
The context in which these reforms were conceived was characterized by profound social fragmentation and a highly conflictual political climate. The transition from a one-party system to a multiparty democracy was not a linear process but rather a tumultuous path marked by deep ideological tensions, such as the conflict between supporters of the old Marxist-Leninist doctrines and those advocating for the rapid adoption of Western models.
Key events, such as the violent student protests in Tirana and strikes in the country’s major factories, highlighted these divisions and underscored the necessity of radical change. Although the reforms represented formal progress, the PLA retained significant influence over state structures and the national economy, exercising informal control that often undermined democratization efforts.
This situation fueled popular discontent, with many sectors of society viewing promises of change with skepticism, fearing they were mere tools to perpetuate the old regime’s power under a new guise.
Albanian society, emerging from decades of international isolation and an inefficient economic system, faced an uncertain future. While the political reforms were significant, they failed to dispel the fears of many citizens, divided between enthusiasm for a potential democratic breakthrough and concern that the promises of change were merely illusory.
For a considerable portion of the population, the announced elections represented a concrete opportunity to break with the past, while for others, they were seen as cosmetic operations. This ideological polarization contributed to a climate of instability, further exacerbated by a deepening economic crisis and inadequate infrastructure to support a democratic transition.
The March 1991 elections, the first pluralistic vote after decades of totalitarian rule, were a crucial event but not without irregularities. Among the most serious and documented issues were accusations of result manipulation, physical intimidation of independent observers, and direct pressure on voters, especially in rural areas where the PLA’s influence remained dominant.
These accusations reflected both the technical and logistical complexity of organizing elections in a context devoid of established democratic traditions and the political tensions permeating Albania at the time. The election results revealed a deeply divided nation: on one side, a population still tied to the past; on the other, a growing push for radical change.
The transition period following the elections was characterized by unprecedented challenges. On one hand, new political forces emerged, such as the Democratic Party, led by Sali Berisha, which positioned itself as the principal advocate of an alternative political model based on democratic and inclusive principles.
At the same time, smaller movements like the Socialist Union for Integration began to take shape, broadening the spectrum of political options available. On the other hand, the old establishment adopted strategies to retain control through practices such as the co-optation of emerging figures and the instrumental use of economic resources.
This dual dynamic significantly hindered the democratization process, generating political and social instability.
An overcrowded bus becomes a symbol of survival in Tirana, a capital scarred by poverty and the wounds of 40 years of isolation imposed by Enver Hoxha’s Stalinist regime, which left the country deprived of resources and opportunities. Photo by Nicole Bengiveno.
Despite the challenges, the reforms introduced by Ramiz Alia represented a turning point in Albania's transformation. They not only initiated the transition to a multiparty democracy but also deeply influenced subsequent generations, solidifying the principles of political pluralism and civil rights as fundamental pillars of the political system.
Moreover, these reforms laid the groundwork for greater openness to the international context, facilitating the country’s entry into supranational organizations such as the OSCE and creating the conditions for future aspirations toward European integration.
Future generations inherited a fragmented yet dynamic political landscape, where competition among political forces contributed to the gradual development of more inclusive and transparent institutions. Although imperfect and often shaped by external and internal pressures, these measures established the foundations for a more inclusive and pluralistic political system.
The long and arduous transition process ushered in a new phase in Albanian history, marked by both challenges and opportunities, paving the way for a redefinition of the country’s role on the international stage.
The 1991 Elections
The parliamentary elections of March 1991 represented a crucial turning point in Albania's history, symbolizing the country’s first attempt to embrace a multiparty political system. Unlike previous elections, characterized by mandatory participation and a lack of real alternatives, this new electoral process offered citizens the opportunity to choose among various political options for the first time. This shift marked a significant step toward pluralism and democratic participation.
After decades of dominance by the Albanian Party of Labour (PLA), the electoral process was met with great hope by the population but was also marked by deep tensions and irregularities.
The electoral campaign unfolded in a context of precarious transition. On one side, the PLA, rebranded as the Socialist Party of Albania (PSA), sought to maintain institutional control by leveraging state resources and a still-powerful network of allies in local administrations. On the other side, the newly formed Democratic Party of Albania (PDA), led by Sali Berisha, emerged as a disruptive force, buoyed by growing popular enthusiasm and support from the Albanian diaspora abroad.
Despite the inexperience of the new parties and infrastructural limitations, the elections saw high voter turnout, a clear indication of the collective desire for change. However, the process was not without controversy: numerous allegations of fraud, intimidation, and favoritism toward the PSA cast a shadow over the final outcome.
The PSA secured a relative majority, maintaining a dominant role, but the PDA and other smaller parties succeeded in entering parliament, breaking the political monopoly of the one-party system for the first time.
An Ambivalent Outcome.
The outcome of the 1991 elections was received with mixed reactions. On one hand, it was a symbolic victory for democracy, paving the way for political pluralism. On the other hand, it highlighted the inherent challenges of such a rapid transition in a country with no democratic traditions. The Socialist Party of Albania (PSA) retained significant influence, while the Democratic Party of Albania (PDA) and other emerging forces faced immense challenges in consolidating their presence and building a solid political base.
Social and political tensions continued to rise in the months following the elections. A notable example was the general strike of February 1991, which involved thousands of industrial and agricultural workers. In Tirana, protesters occupied the main squares, demanding not only better economic conditions but also an end to the PSA's political influence over state institutions.
In many cities, such as Vlora and Durrës, unrest broke out, reflecting the growing dissatisfaction of the population. These events underscored the government’s difficulty in addressing demands for change amidst an unprecedented economic and social crisis.
The ongoing economic crisis, characterized by rising unemployment and chronic shortages of essential goods, further exacerbated the situation, severely testing the stability of the new political system.
The Historical Significance of the Elections.
Despite its challenges, the 1991 elections marked a turning point. For the first time, Albanians were able to participate in a political process that, while imperfect, offered a genuine possibility of choice. The historical significance of this event lies not only in its symbolic value but also in its ability to catalyze further political and economic transformations.
The 1991 elections laid the groundwork for subsequent constitutional reforms and the country’s increased openness to the international community. Although the Socialist Party of Albania (PSA) retained power in the short term, the change initiated by these elections proved irreversible, marking the beginning of a new chapter in Albanian history: the transition toward a fully realized democracy and a pluralistic society.
The Formation of New Political Parties and the Birth of Civil Society
The Birth of New Parties.
With the introduction of multiparty politics, Albania experienced unprecedented political ferment. Numerous political parties emerged in response to the growing demand for pluralism and participation. Among these, the Democratic Party (PD), founded in December 1990 and led by Sali Berisha, quickly established itself as the main opposition force to the Socialist Party of Albania (PSA), the direct successor of the Party of Labour. The PD attracted a broad base of supporters, including students, intellectuals, urban workers, and members of the diaspora, all united by the desire to break with the communist past.
Alongside the PD, other political formations were created to represent various segments of Albanian society. Parties such as the Republican Party and the Social Democratic Party reflected growing ideological diversity, while smaller movements sought to address local and sectoral issues. This fragmented political landscape reflected a society in rapid transformation, still deeply marked by divisions created by the communist regime.
The Emergence of Civil Society.
At the same time, civil society began to develop, with the formation of non-governmental organizations such as the Albanian Association for Human Rights and independent media outlets like the newspaper *Koha Jonë.* These actors started to carve out an important role in public life, promoting public debate, transparency, and the monitoring of institutions. Although still weak and poorly structured, they laid the groundwork for a more open and participatory dialogue.
The emergence of cultural associations and activist groups committed to human rights was a key element of this phase. Many of these organizations focused on promoting press freedom, combating corruption, and defending ethnic and religious minorities. Additionally, new independent media, such as newspapers and radio stations, emerged to break the state monopoly on information, offering a platform for debate and the expression of diverse opinions.
These developments, though initially fragmented, contributed to building a more resilient social fabric. Albanian civil society was still in its infancy but represented an emerging force that would play an increasingly crucial role in building democracy and consolidating a pluralistic political system.
Social Conflicts
The transition process in Albania was marked by profound social conflicts that made the path to democracy both challenging and complex. Student protests, which had ignited political change, continued to play a crucial role in highlighting economic hardships and the need for more profound reforms. Adding to these were ethnic tensions, particularly in border regions where minorities demanded greater rights and recognition.
Economic difficulties were among the primary sources of conflict. The transition to a market economy, accompanied by the closure of over 50% of state-owned factories by 1992 and unemployment rates reaching 40% in some areas, caused widespread discontent among workers. This unrest often translated into mass protests, such as the large-scale demonstrations of 1991 in Tirana and Durrës, where thousands took to the streets to protest poor conditions and call for urgent action. Though still weak, unions began organizing strikes and demonstrations, giving a voice to the demands of the working class.
Despite these struggles, the period from 1985 to 1992 was a transformative era for Albania. The end of the communist regime and the establishment of democracy brought significant challenges but also instilled hopes for the future. The population looked forward to rebuilding the economy through foreign investments and sustainable development policies. Younger generations saw political freedom as a gateway to improved education and greater cultural opportunities.
At the same time, many Albanians hoped that integration with Europe and the international community would bring stability and prosperity, ensuring a more secure and dignified future for the nation. The tasks of rebuilding a shattered economy, consolidating democratic institutions, and combating corruption remained significant challenges. Yet, the democratization process marked an irreversible shift, opening the door to a new chapter in Albania’s history.
Bibliography
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Lopez, Beppe. Il principe nel groviglio. Zines, 2009.
Vaina, Eugenio. Albania che nasce. Francesco Battiato editore, 1914.
Frashëri, Kristo. Shpallja e pavarësisë së Shqipërisë. Pubblicazione del Ministero dell'Educazione e della Cultura, 1957.
Biagini, A. F. Storia dell'Albania contemporanea: Dagli illiri all’Impero ottomano, dall’indipendenza alla dittatura di Enver Hoxha ai giorni nostri. Bompiani, 2021.
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