Chapter 4: The Italian and German Occupation of Albania and the Resistance (1939-1944)

Chapter 4

The Italian and German Occupation of Albania and the Resistance (1939-1944)

By Elton Varfi

Between 1939 and 1944, Albania experienced one of the most complex and devastating periods in its contemporary history, marked by the occupations of fascist powers and the rise of a popular resistance that would profoundly transform the country’s political and social structure. This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the dynamics of Italian and German occupation, the dissolution of the monarchy, and the crucial role of the Albanian resistance movement, exploring the long-term implications of these events on the construction of national identity and the post-war political system.

The Italian Invasion and the End of the Monarchy

On April 7, 1939, Fascist Italy, led by Benito Mussolini, invaded Albania, ending the country's independence and the brief monarchical rule of King Zog I, who was forced into exile. The invasion was the result of a long-standing strategy to expand Italian influence in the Balkans, consolidate control over the Adriatic, and establish a strategic outpost for future expansion campaigns. The resistance of the Albanian army was limited, not only due to the disparity of forces but also because of a lack of preparation and coordination. Within days, strategic ports like Durrës, Vlora, and others were occupied, and Albania was formally annexed by Italy as part of a personal union under the crown of Victor Emmanuel III.

On April 7, 1939, Italian troops landed in Durres, marking the beginning of the occupation of Albania. The operation, supported by a large naval and air fleet, was a key moment in the expansion of the Fascist regime in the Balkans.

Italy’s aim was to integrate Albania into its sphere of influence through a process of Italianization and forced colonization. Customs barriers between the two countries were quickly removed, and Albanian institutions were replaced with governance structures modeled on Italian Fascist principles. Education was Italianized: schools began teaching Italian language, history, and culture, and youth organizations like the Young Fascists were created to instill Fascist ideology in the younger generations. Infrastructural investments, such as roads, railways, and bridges, served dual purposes: improving the extraction and transport of natural resources to Italy and facilitating territorial control. Strategic resources, including oil, chromium, and timber, were intensively exploited to support Italy's war effort.

Italian occupation deeply transformed Albania’s political framework. A Fascist Corporate Council replaced the Albanian parliament, and local governance was entrusted to Italian officials or their supporters, minimizing any form of autonomy. Centralized management and the colonial system promoted systematic exploitation of economic resources for Italy’s benefit, further impoverishing the Albanian population. Discontent grew, particularly in rural areas, where farmers were forced to provide food supplies to the occupying troops, leading to famine and exacerbating the divide between rich and poor.

The Italian occupation was not merely a territorial conquest but an ideological campaign aimed at transforming Albanian society into an extension of the Fascist regime. Italianization efforts extended beyond state institutions and schools, attempting to influence every aspect of public and private life, from the economy to culture. Fascist authorities sought to co-opt local elites by offering them positions of power within the new administration, while the rural population bore the brunt of requisition policies and agricultural exploitation. This process led to widespread resistance, which manifested not only through the emergence of organized movements but also in everyday forms of defiance, such as refusing to collaborate and providing passive support to partisan groups.

Cultural resistance to Italian occupation was significant. The Albanian population, deeply attached to its national identity, responded with passive resistance, refusing assimilation. Many religious and community leaders actively opposed collaboration with Fascist authorities, while the exiled King Zog remained a symbol of resistance and hope for a future free of foreign occupation. This cultural resistance served as an essential source of cohesion for a population that, despite geographic and social divisions, shared a common aversion to foreign domination. Furthermore, the suppression of national culture by the Fascist regime only strengthened Albanian identity, giving rise to poets, writers, and artists who used their work as a means of protest.

The Albanian Resistance and Collaboration with Balkan Movements

From the early phase of the Italian occupation, spontaneous resistance cells began to form, primarily composed of farmers and small groups of nationalists. However, it was only in 1941, with the establishment of the Albanian Communist Party, that the resistance became organized and coordinated. The Communist Party successfully mobilized large segments of the population, transforming the resistance into a popular movement with the dual objective of expelling the occupiers and creating a new political structure. Guerrilla operations were planned and executed with increasing sophistication, targeting strategic objectives such as railways, communication infrastructure, and ammunition depots. The main tactic involved swift raids and surprise attacks, followed by immediate retreats to the mountainous areas, where partisans found refuge and support from the local population.

The entry of Italian troops into Tirana in April 1939. The invasion, celebrated with fascist symbols and the slogan "Long Live the King Emperor," marked the beginning of the Italian occupation of Albania and its annexation to the Kingdom of Italy.

Albanian guerrillas capitalized on their deep knowledge of the terrain, leveraging the mountainous environment to their advantage. This approach proved particularly effective against a better-equipped enemy unaccustomed to Albania's challenging landscape. The resistance also relied on a well-structured communication network involving entire communities. Villages, despite facing severe repression, often became logistical hubs for the resistance, providing food, information, and hiding places. The involvement of local communities made the resistance a genuinely popular movement that transcended social and geographical divisions, uniting the population in a common effort against foreign occupation.

A distinctive feature of the Albanian resistance was the participation of women, who played a crucial role in both logistical support and active combat. Albanian women not only transported weapons and medical supplies but also took part in guerrilla actions, often proving to be capable leaders within local units. Their involvement helped break traditional gender barriers, laying the foundation for a more active role for women in post-war Albanian society. Many of these women later became prominent figures in local administrations and political movements, contributing to the country's social transformation. Their presence in the resistance was revolutionary, redefining gender roles in a traditionally patriarchal society and marking a profound change that would influence future generations.

The Albanian resistance movement did not operate in isolation. One of its defining characteristics was its close collaboration with other antifascist forces in the Balkans, particularly the Yugoslav partisans. This transnational alliance enabled better coordination of guerrilla operations and access to resources and supplies provided by the Allies. Cooperation between Albanian and Yugoslav partisans was not without difficulties, especially given historical ethnic and political tensions, but the common enemy created a temporary synergy. The Peza Conference in September 1942 was a pivotal moment for consolidating the Albanian resistance. During this conference, various antifascist groups agreed to unite under the National Liberation Movement, led by the Communist Party and Enver Hoxha, who emerged as the movement’s undisputed leader thanks to his strategic acumen and ability to maintain unity among diverse factions.

Stadio dei Marmi, 1939: ceremony of the presentation of Skanderbeg's crown to the King of Italy, featuring a parade of Albanian troops in traditional attire.

 

Enver Hoxha skillfully used the Peza Conference to consolidate his power, gaining the support of various resistance factions and reinforcing the idea of a united struggle against the foreign occupiers. This ability to unify the antifascist movement under a single political leadership was a decisive step toward the formation of a new Albanian political order. Cooperation with Yugoslav partisans, although pragmatic, highlighted the inherent tensions characterizing relations among the different Balkan nationalities. Nevertheless, the necessity of fighting a common enemy temporarily overcame these rivalries, and the Albanian resistance significantly benefited from Yugoslav support in terms of military strategy and supplies.

During the conflict, Albanian partisans managed to liberate certain areas of the country, which became operational bases for coordinating further attacks against Axis forces. These liberated zones served as tangible alternatives to the pro-Italian collaborationist government, demonstrating the possibility of self-governance free from foreign control. In these areas, local administrations were established, and basic infrastructures were organized, providing concrete evidence of the resistance movement’s capacity for self-rule. The Allies, particularly the United Kingdom, provided crucial support to the partisans through secret missions and supply drops in mountainous regions, enabling the resistance to remain active and well-supplied despite severe repression by the occupiers.

The support of the civilian population was crucial to the success of the partisan movement. Many ordinary citizens risked their lives to provide shelter and logistical support to the fighters. Rural communities, with their deep knowledge of the terrain, were instrumental in hiding partisans and ensuring their escape routes. However, this participation came with great risks: German and Italian forces often responded with brutal reprisals, burning villages and taking hostages as punishment for supporting the resistance. German reprisals, including summary executions and deportations, aimed to terrorize the population and sever the ties between civilians and partisans, but they often had the opposite effect, strengthening the determination of local communities to support the struggle.

The German Occupation and Liberation

With the signing of the armistice between Italy and the Allies on September 8, 1943, Albania came under German occupation. The Germans, in an attempt to stabilize the country, promised a semblance of autonomy, but this was primarily a strategy to gain local support without granting any real power. The German occupation was marked by even greater brutality than the Italian one, with systematic policies of repression, raids, and reprisals. Determined to maintain control over the Balkans, the Nazis planned counter-guerrilla operations to annihilate all forms of resistance. However, despite the harsh repression, the Albanian resistance not only survived but intensified, fueled by growing hatred of the occupation and the hope for eventual liberation.

The Albanian partisans, led by Enver Hoxha, continued to sabotage German communication and logistical lines, carrying out daring raids that made it increasingly difficult for the occupiers to maintain control over the territory. The partisan strategy relied on an effective combination of guerrilla warfare, sabotage, and propaganda aimed at undermining the morale of German troops and further mobilizing the local population. In 1944, the Albanian partisans escalated their pressure on German forces, progressively liberating vast areas of the country. This phase culminated in the expulsion of the last German forces on November 29, 1944, a victory achieved almost entirely by their own efforts, without direct intervention from Allied troops. This success bolstered the Communist Party's prestige, positioning it as the legitimate liberator of the country and the guarantor of its future independence.

The resistance during the German occupation demonstrated extraordinary adaptability and perseverance. While German forces sought to consolidate their control through a network of local collaborators, the partisans continually undermined their operations, targeting critical points in the occupation system. The guerrilla tactics adopted by Albanian partisans involved swift, coordinated attacks designed to inflict maximum damage with minimal risk. This asymmetric warfare proved highly effective in the Albanian terrain, characterized by mountains and valleys that provided shelter and escape routes. Despite immense pressure and risks, the civilian population continued to support the partisans, offering refuge and critical information.

Enver Hoxha, leader of the Democratic Front, emerged from the Partisan movement that, since 1942, led the resistance against the Italians and Germans, with strong support from Albania's rural population.

Enver Hoxha, through his leadership and ability to coordinate the diverse factions of the resistance, emerged as the dominant figure in post-war Albanian politics. His role in the country's liberation enabled him to legitimize his grip on power, and the victory over the common enemy was used as a foundation for establishing a socialist regime that would govern Albania for decades. The narrative of liberation, built around the sacrifice and heroism of the partisans, became the cornerstone of the new state, uniting the country under the Communist Party's banner and providing an ideological justification for Hoxha's total consolidation of power.

Consequences and Social Transformations

The liberation of Albania marked a moment of great national pride but also the beginning of a period of radical political transformation under the leadership of Enver Hoxha’s Communist Party. The resistance experience legitimized the communists as the true protagonists of national liberation, allowing them to seize control of the country without significant opposition. However, this new order brought with it an authoritarian regime that would restrict many of the freedoms for which the Albanian people had fought. The political structure was completely reorganized according to Marxist-Leninist principles, with the Communist Party exerting absolute control over all spheres of public life.

The social transformations spurred by the resistance were equally significant. The participation of women in the armed struggle not only emancipated them socially but also integrated them actively into the new power structures. After the war, many women joined the public administration and the Communist Party, contributing to the construction of the new socialist state. The war had also politicized large segments of the population, particularly young people and farmers, who found themselves involved in the country’s political life for the first time. This process led to the emergence of a new ruling class composed of former partisans and local leaders who had distinguished themselves during the resistance.

The resistance experience became an integral part of Albania’s national narrative. Enver Hoxha’s regime made extensive use of the memory of the partisan struggle to legitimize its power, building a cult of resistance that permeated the country’s education, culture, and politics. Monuments erected in honor of fallen partisans, annual celebrations, and museums dedicated to the resistance were fundamental tools in consolidating the ideology of the new state. However, the rhetoric of resistance concealed the contradictions of the new regime: the promise of a free and independent society quickly turned into a reality of authoritarian control, political purges, and repression of dissent.

Hoxha’s regime consolidated its power through a series of repressive measures. Political purges were brutal, and many partisans who had fought for the country’s liberation were eliminated or marginalized for being seen as potential threats to the new order. The forced collectivization of agriculture and the nationalization of industries were presented as necessary steps toward building a socialist society but came with significant social and economic costs. Land was confiscated and redistributed, and those who opposed these policies faced arrest or deportation. While this process brought some modernization to the country, it was accompanied by a significant loss of individual freedoms and increased dependence on the state.

The Albanian resistance against Axis forces was not only a struggle for national liberation but also a catalyst for radical change in the country’s social and political structure. Mass participation, the growing role of women, collaboration with other resistance movements in the Balkans, and support from the Allies all contributed to the success of the partisan movement and the subsequent establishment of the socialist state. However, the transition to this new order was not without sacrifices and contradictions. Albania succeeded in maintaining its national sovereignty, but at the cost of increasingly oppressive internal control that would define the country’s life for much of the 20th century.

The impact of the war and occupation was also felt in the country’s familial and social structures. The division of families, with men engaged in the resistance or forced labor imposed by the occupiers, and the emerging role of women as community pillars, contributed to redefining social dynamics. Women, who had taken active and visible roles during the war, continued to claim a central role in the postwar period, helping shape the new socialist society. The emergence of new leadership figures from the ranks of the partisans transformed Albanian politics, making decision-making processes more inclusive but also tightly controlled by the Communist Party.

November 1944: The National Liberation Army marches through Tirana after the liberation of Albania. A solemn moment marking the end of a dramatic chapter in the nation’s history and the beginning of a new era for the country.

The fight against the occupiers also fostered a more widespread political consciousness. Before the war, politics was perceived as a matter reserved for a small elite, but the resistance involved large segments of the population, from rural areas to cities, creating a new generation of activists and leaders. This involvement spread political awareness and greater civic participation, though these were soon channeled into the rigid control system of the Communist Party. The war was not only a moment of destruction but also of creation and transformation, deeply shaping the course of Albanian history for generations to come.

In the postwar period, the narrative of the resistance became the cornerstone of Albanian national identity. Enver Hoxha’s regime used the memory of the partisan struggle to legitimize its authority and build a collective identity based on sacrifice, heroism, and unity against a common enemy. Monuments, museums, and annual celebrations were established to commemorate the resistance, while stories of courage and sacrifice were taught in schools and disseminated through state media, reinforcing the regime’s ideology. However, the reality of the postwar period was marked by deep contradictions. National independence was achieved, but at the expense of individual freedom. The heroism of the resistance was used as a propaganda tool to justify a regime that soon revealed itself to be repressive and authoritarian.

Albania’s path to freedom and independence was marked by profound ambiguities. The resistance represented a moment of great national unity and courage, but the cost of liberation was the establishment of a regime that would restrict many of the freedoms for which the people had fought. The transition to a new socialist state was neither linear nor without sacrifices: while Albania maintained its national sovereignty, internal repression, political purges, and international isolation deeply affected the country. This chapter of Albanian history is thus a complex story of heroism, sacrifice, and hope, but also of contradictions and challenges that would continue to shape the country for decades, influencing its identity and political future.

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